Chapters 8-14 Jeopardy Review

Hey Hey!

So these are the questions from today's review session Jeopardy game. If you guys have any questions regarding the material, don't hesitate to email me. I will be in MacMillian at 10:30am if you guys want to go over last minute questions and what not.

Exam Information: MacMillian Hall (across from Science Library) from 1pm-4pm

Good luck studying! See you tomorrow

Chris

These are the basic tastes

Salt

Sour

Sweet

Bitter

Umami

Definitions of:

Ageusia

Hypogeusia

Dysgeusia

Ageusia: Loss of taste

Hypogeusia: Partial loss of taste

Dysgeusia: Distortion of sense of taste

We have ____ (#) olfactory receptors.

How do we detect more than ____ different smells?

900 Different Olfactory Receptors

Population Coding

Taste signals pass through the _______ before reaching the cortex

Thalamus

Describe the difference in olfactory CNS processing compared to other sensory input

Signals can go through the thalamus to the neocortex (frontal lobe), and can also go DIRECTLY to the olfactory cortex (temporal lobe), bypassing the thalamus.

Describe the function of the following: Pupil, Iris, Lens, Cornea, Sclera, Vitreous Humor, Retina

Pupil: Allows light to strike retina

Iris: Contains muscle to contract pupil

Lens: Help focus images

Cornea: Bends light to converge on retina

Sclera: Wall of eyeball

Vitreous Humor: Viscous, maintains shape

Retina: Contains photoreceptors

Define the following eye disorders

-Strabismus: (Esotropia and Exotropia)

-Cataract

-Glaucoma

-Detached Retina

-Retinitis pigmentosa

-Macular degeneration

Strabismus: Lack of coordination of the eyes. Esotropia: Gazes cross (cross-eyed) Exotropia: Divergent gazes.

Cataract: Clouding of the lens.

Glaucoma: ­ Intraocular pressure ® optic nerve damage

Detached Retina: Retina detaches from the wall of the eye.

Retinitis pigmentosa: Loss of photoreceptors, peripheral vision lost 1^st

Macular degeneration: Central photoreceptors lost 1^st

Describe the sequence of events that occurs in the photoreceptors of the retina from the time that light hits the retina up to and including the bipolar cell response.

In the dark, cGMP activates sodium channels to produce some depolarization in the photoreceptor cells. This in turn causes some glutamate release onto the bipolar cells. The bipolar cell could be depolarized or hyperpolarized by this action. If the bipolar cell contains AMPA receptors it will be depolarized, and then it will be characterized as an OFF bipolar cell (more depolarized when the light is off). If the bipolar cell contains a G-protein coupled glutamate receptor it will be hyperpolarized by glutamate, and then it will be characterized as an ON bipolar cell (more depolarized when the light is on).

When light strikes rhodopsin, the retinal changes shape, which produces a conformational change in the rhodopsin. This in turn will activate a G-protein (transducin) to activate a phosphodiesterase enzyme that will break down the cGMP. This causes the photoreceptor cell to hyperpolarize (less sodium channels open), and release less glutamate. The bipolar responses are indicated above.

Describe Ocular Dominance Shift

This shows plasticity in the visual system. You can record in the visual cortex to see responses from left eye and right eye, and get a normal distribution. You can then (in an animal study) suture one eye closed, say the left eye. After a certain period of time, you can remove the suture and do the visual cortex mapping study again. You find that now there is a dramatic shift in responsiveness, such that the right eye dominates. There is a certain critical period of time during development where this response is maximal. This has implications for conditions such as lazy eye, which can be corrected at a young age by patching the good eye 6 days a week to make the weaker eye work and establish its responsive area in the visual cortex.

Describe the visual pathway starting with the photoreceptor and ending in the Temporal and Parietal Cortex

Photoreceptor

Bipolar Cell

Ganglion Cell

Optic Nerve

LGN

Primary Visual Cortex

Temporal and Parietal Cortex

External fluid in the inner ear contains high concentrations of this

Potassium

Describe the pathway to the CNS starting with outer ear and ending with Primary Auditory Cortex (A₁)

Outer Ear

Middle Ear (Ossicles)

Inner Ear

Brain Stem

MGN

A₁

Describe both Horizontal and Vertical sound localization

Horizontal: Both ears working together, interaural time delay

Vertical: Uses convolutions in pinna.

Describe functions of the Vestibular System

Sense of Balance

Sense of Position and Movement of Head

Coordinating Movement of Eyes

Why are drugs such as furoemide (a diuretic) and gentamicin (an antibiotic) especially dangerous

These drugs are ototoxic and their effects can be synergistic. They harm the outer hair cells and prevent normal amplification of sound.

List and then describe the characteristics of the different primary afferent neurons

Aα myelinated, fastest, proprioception

Aβ myelinated, fast, mechanoceptors

Aδ myelinated, Slow, pain/temp

C non-myelinated, Slowest, pain/temp/itch

Chemicals released from damaged tissue that can produce nocioception

Prostagandins, Histamine, Bradykinin, Substance P

Characterize Meissner, Pacinian, Merkel, and Ruffini Receptors in terms of receptive field size and adaptation

Meissner: Fast, Small

Pacinian: Fast, Large

Merkel: Slow, Small

Ruffini: Slow, Large

Touch signaling to the brain uses the __________ pathway

Dorsal Column Medial Lemniscal Pathway

____________ can amplify differences between input from neighboring neurons

Lateral Inhibition

The alpha motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates

Motor Unit

Compare Fast and Slow Muscles

1)Fast: White, Fast contraction, fatigue easier

2)Slow: Red, Slow contraction, do not fatigue as easily as white muscles.

Muscle contraction is triggered by the release of ____ from the motor neuron onto the muscle receptor

Acetylcholine

These innervate muscle fibers (intrafusal) that are within the muscle spindles and provide info about muscle length

Gamma Motor Neurons

Describe the steps of contraction in a muscle

Ach Release è Stimulate nicotinic muscle receptors

EPSP produced

Depolarization stimulates sarcoplasmic reticulum to release Calcium

Calcium binds to troponin

Allows myosin to interact with actin

Myosin heads pivot, causing contraction

ATP disengages actin/myosin

Area 6 in the fontal lobe is associated with _____

Motor Planning

Degeneration in the basal ganglia causes

Parkinson’s Disease

Pathway important for executing planned movement and for learning motor tasks

Corticopontocerebellar Projection

Movement direction is encoded by the collective activity of _______

A population of neurons

(population coding)

Describe the causes of:

Parkinson’s

Huntington’s

Ballism

Parkinson’s: Loss of DA input to putamen (hypokinesia)

Huntington’s: Loss of GP inhibition of Thalamus

Ballism: Loss of subthalamic activation of GP

Describe 3 examples of plasticity in the Nervous System

Auditory (localization)

Visual (Ocular Dominance)

Sensory Cortex (Mouse Whiskers)

Motor Cortex (Monkey Fingers)

Jeopardy Ch 15-25

Hey Everyone,

This is the outline from Tuesdays Review Session.

Good luck studying.

Chris

The functions of Oxytocin and Vasopressin

Oxytocin: Uterine Contractions and Milk Secretion

Vasopression: Stimulates was retention via reducing of urine output (also found in conjunction with Pair-Bonding

The autonomic nervous system uses this NT as a sympathetic transmitter, and this NT as a parasympathetic transmitter

Norepinephrine as a sympathetic transmitter

Acetylcholine as a parasympathetic transmitter

Describe the production of cortisol starting with the hypothalamic release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

-Release of CRH

-Stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

-Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol

The preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system have their cell bodies in the _______ regions of the spinal cord

Thoracic and Lumbar regions of the spinal cord

An agent secreted into the general circulation by the terminals of the magnocellular neurosecretory neurons of the hypothalamus in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland:

Vasopressin

αMSH, Leptin, CART, and Insulin all produce a decrease in:

Appetite

The ______ pathway from the ventral tegmentum to the nucleus accumbens is part of the reward system.

Dopamine

The hypothalamus controls the pituitary release of ____ and ____, which in turn influence sexual aspects such as sperm maturation and the menstrual cycle.

LH and FSH

NPY (neuropeptide Y) and AgRP (agouti-related peptide) are examples of ___ peptides

Orexigenic

Describe Levay’s study and possible implications

Levay examined the brains of homosexual individuals and heterosexual individuals and found that INAH-3 (interstitial nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus) had a larger area for heterosexual men. This suggest a nature component to sexual orientation.

This is the Cannon-Bard Theory on the Source of Emotionality

Emotions originate in the brain which leads to emotional expression

Name the structures involved in the Papez Circuit

Neocortex, Cingulate Cortex, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, Anterior Nuclei of Thalamus, and Amygdala

Damage to the Amygdala will cause:

Flattened affect (emotionality); Loss of ability to recognize fearful facial expression

These are the 3 Criteria for Drug Addiction

1)Continued drug-seeking behavior when unavailable

2) High motivation for the drug

3) Continued use despite adverse consequences

A lack of 5-HT (serotonin) functioning may contribute to

Aggressive Behavior

The biological clock found in the hypothalamus

Suprachiasmatic Nuclei (SCN)

Benzodazepines, such as Valium and Xanax do this:

Potentiate GABA action at GABA_A receptors

Describe how Adenosine contributes to sleep physiology

Adenosine levels increase during the day and induces sleep when a high level is reached. Adenosine levels decrease during sleep

The purpose of sleep:

The purpose of dreaming:

We don’t know.

Compare Non-REM to REM Sleep

Non-REM: Moveable body, Low energy consumption, EEG- High voltage, slow frequency

REM: Paralyzed body, High brain energy consumption, EEG- Opposite

Describe the wine and cheese effect

Monoamine Oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) prevent the metabolism of tyramine that is found in wine and cheese. Tyramine has peripheral actions similar to amphetamine. Therefore, with MAOI plus cheese you might see: An increase in BP

Describe vertical cleavage, horizontal cleavage, and the significance of Numb and Notch-1

Vertical: Daughter cells stay

Horizontal: Further daughter cell leaves

Notch-1/Numb: The daughter high in Notch-1 and low in Numb will migrate

If one identical twin suffers from manic-depressive disorder (bipolar depression) the chance that the other twin will also is between __ and __%

Between 50% and 80%

Describe the actions of chemoattractants and chemorepellents

They are involved in a push/pull mechanism. Attracting the axon and then repelling it.

What is the evidence for a biochemical cause of unipolar depression?

The use of reserpine to treat hypertension also producing clinical depression in 20% of the patients.

The use of agents to treat tuberculosis that also caused mood elevation.

Genetic evidence, seen especially in identical twins.

Long term memory requires this:

Protein Synthesis

Induction of both LTP (long-term potentiation) and LTD (long-term depression) in brain tissue slices depends upon entry of _______ into the cells

Calcium

Describe the role of CREB-1 with regards to long term memory

CREB-1 is a transcription factor which may play a role in the formation of long term memory

Long-term potentiation will _____ in the presence of NMDA receptor blockers

Decrease

In the Gill Reflex, when a stimulus is applied to the siphon skin, there is a gill withdrawal reflex. When this stimulus is coupled with a shock to the head, the gill withdrawal reflex is more pronounced. How has this been explained at the synaptic (neurotransmitter and 2^nd messenger) level?

L29 releases serotonin. This activates an adenylyl cyclase to make more cAMP. The cAMP activates PKA, which causes the voltage-gated potassium channels to be less active. This will delay the hyperpolarization and will keep the membrane potential depolarized longer, so that more calcium can enter. This will allow for more transmitter release

This pathway is the target for many addictive drugs (cocaine, nicotine, etc.)

Dopamine Pathway from Ventral Tegmentum to Nucleus Accumbens

Jeopardy Ch 1-7

Hey Guys,

This is the outline from the Review Session (Monday).

Chris

These are the distinctions between white and gray matter

White: Neurons possessing a myelin sheath

Gray: Cell bodies, dendrites, nerve terminals

These are the functions of the following organelles: Nucleus, Ribosomes, Golgi Apparatus, Mitochondria, ER, Smooth ER

Nucleus: mRNA Synthesis

Ribosomes: Protein Synthesis

Golgi: Protein Processing

Mitochondria: ATP Synthesis

ER: Location of Ribosomes

Smooth ER: Sequestering of Ca2+

The purpose and protein for each “Retrograde Transport” and “Anterograde Transport”

Retrograde: Dynein (Info about nerve terminal, metabolic needs, information about target neuron)

Anterograde: Kinesin (Transport metabolic needs to terminal)

The things each of these men are responsible for: Galen, Descarte, Broca, Golgi, Cajal, Nissl, Nernst, Loewi

Galen: Differential Brain Function

Descarte: Fluid/Hollow Tube Model

Broca: Fontal Lobe/Speaking

Golgi: Golgi Stain

Cajal: Individual Cells

Nissl: Nissl Stain

Nernst: Nernst Eq.

Loewi: Chemical Transmission Evidence

This was the disagreement between Cajal and Golgi and how the issue was resolved.

Golgi believed that the neuritis of different cells are fused together to form a continuous reticulum. Cajal, on the other hand argued forcefully that the neuritis of different neurons are not continuous with one another and must communicate by contact, not continuity. The development of the electron microscope offered proof of the neuron doctrine.

These are the most important ions with regard to neuronal functioning

Na+, K+, Cl-, and Ca2+

This is the typical value for a neuronal resting potential.

-65 mV

Calculate the Eq. Potential:

Eion = 61.54mV log (Out)/(In)

Provided:

Internal conc. =3mM and External conc. = 300mM

+123mV

This is how the resting membrane is produced, and the main ion that controls the resting potential.

The ion pumps, using ATP, pump K+ ions into the neuron in exchange for Na+ ions, which get pumped out of the cell. The main ion that controls the resting potential is K+, since this is the ion that is most permeable at rest.

This is the most common site of origination of an action potential

Axon Hillock

This involves the use of a myelin sheath, where the AP jumps from node to node, and travels much faster down the neuron.

Saltatory Conduction

These are the cells that myelin is made by

Oligodendroglial Cells

Information is coded in an Action potential in these ways

Variation of frequency and pattern

Describe the events to bring about the rising and falling phases of an action potential in terms of ion movements.

At threshold, the voltage-gated Na+ channels open up, allowing Na+ ions into the neuron. The permeability to Na+ dominates, and so the system moves toward the equilibrium potential for Na+. As the action potential proceeds, the Na+ channels close and the voltage-gated K+ channels open. This allows for an efflux of K+ and a return to the K+ equilibrium potential.

These are the (3) Anatomical Connections for axons

Axodendritic

Axosomatic

Axoaxonic

The Asymmetrical Gray’s Type I are… The Symmetrical Gray’s Type II are…

(describe abundance and excitatory/inhibitory)

Gray’s Type I: Excitatory (more abundant)

Gray’s Type II:

Inhibitory

These are the side effects of Botulinum Toxin (BTX) and Latrotoxin (LTX)

BTX: Selectively inhibits Ach release

LTX: Stimulation of Ach, then diminished release

The definition of EPSP and IPSP

EPSP (Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential): Depolarization of the post synaptic membrane

IPSP (Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential): Opposite

Describe the life cycle of a Neurotransmitter

Transmitter Synthesis, Transmitter Storage in vesicles, Transmitter Release, Receptor Interaction, and Transmitter Inactivation

The Three General Classes of Transmitters

Biogenic Amines, Amino Acids, Peptides

Definitions of:

-Imunohistochemistry

-in situ hybridization

1)The method using labeled antibodies to identify the location of molecules within a cell

2)Labeled DNA complementary to mRNA for protein of interest

These NTs are considered workhorses for excitation and inhibition respectively

Glutamate and GABA

Removal of the following ion from the incubation bath would decrease the ability of GABA to generate IPSPs:

Chloride

Describe G-Proteins and how they function in transmitting signals between neurons

G-proteins help mediate the signaling that occurs via G-protein associated receptors. When the transmitter binds to the receptor, it causes an activation of the G-protein. GTP displaces GDP that was bound to the G-protein. This in turn causes a dissociation of the G protein into subunits. These subunits can produce signaling.

This type of slice through the brain divides the brain into the left and right halves:

Sagittal

Describe both fMRI and PET Scan

FMRI- looks at ratio of oxygenated/de-oxygenated hemoglobin

PET Scan- Looks at the delivery of oxygen labeled with a positron emitting isotope of oxygen

Name the (3) Primary Brain Vesicles

Prosencephalon or Forebrain, Mesencephalon or Midbrain, and Rhombencephalon or hindbrain

Name the CNS areas that develop from the prosencephalon

Cerebral Cortex

Basal Ganglia

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Name the CNS areas that develop from the rhombencephalon

Cerebellum

Pons

Medulla

NT release occurs at active zones in response to Ca2+ entry and interaction with ________ Proteins

SNARE

Chapter 14

Chapter 13 Spinal Control of Movement

Ch. 12 Touch

Ch. 12. Somatic Sensory Systems

Chapter 11 Auditory and Vestibular Systems